Overview
What the Evidence Shows
interpretation
Ad and Iram
interpretation
Thamud: A Historically Attested Name
interpretation
The Cities of Lot
interpretation
Pharaoh and Haman
Key passage
Quran
وَقَالَ فِرْعَوْنُ يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلْمَلَأُ مَا عَلِمْتُ لَكُم مِّنْ إِلَٰهٍ غَيْرِى فَأَوْقِدْ لِى يَٰهَٰمَٰنُ عَلَى ٱلطِّينِ فَٱجْعَل لِّى صَرْحًۭا لَّعَلِّىٓ أَطَّلِعُ إِلَىٰٓ إِلَٰهِ مُوسَىٰ وَإِنِّى لَأَظُنُّهُۥ مِنَ ٱلْكَٰذِبِينَ
سورة القصص · الآية ٣٨
And Pharaoh said, "O eminent ones, I have not known you to have a god other than me. Then ignite for me, O Haman, [a fire] upon the clay and make for me a tower that I may look at the God of Moses. And indeed, I do think he is among the liars."
Quran 28:38
Translation: Saheeh International
interpretation
Pharaoh's Army and the Sea
sources
Established, Plausible, and Unverified
summary
What Archaeology Contributes
summary
Why the Evidence Still Matters
Sources
Sources and further reading
Primary texts and works cited in this article.
The Quran — Tanzil Uthmani text with Saheeh International translation
quran
Source linkUthmani-script Arabic text from Tanzil with the Saheeh International English translation.
The Holy Bible, World English Bible (public domain)
bible
Source linkPublic-domain English translation from the World English Bible.
1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed
book | Eric Cline
Comprehensive scholarly analysis of Late Bronze Age collapse and its causes, relevant to understanding large-scale societal disruption patterns relevant to Quranic narratives about destroyed civilizations.
Discovering the City of Sodom
book | Steven Collins and Latayne C. Scott
Archaeological investigation of potential Sodom sites in the Dead Sea region, presenting evidence for catastrophic destruction patterns and site identification debates in the southern Levant.
Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization
book | Paul Kriwaczek
Historical and archaeological overview of Babylon, including detailed discussion of the Etemenanki ziggurat and multilingual character of the city.
The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
book | John F. Healey
Scholarly examination of Nabatean religious practices and culture in northern Arabia, providing archaeological and epigraphic context for understanding pre-Islamic Arabian societies.